Justified True Belief

Mapping the Landscape of Good Reasons for the Truth of Christianity

Natural Theology

Arguments for Theism

Cosmological

Arguments from Causation

The Kalam Argument

Leibniz' Contingency Argument

Teleological

Arguments from Design

Cosmic Fine-Tuning

Paley (The Watchmaker)

Applicability of Mathematics

Moral & Rational

Arguments from Morality & Reason

The Moral Argument

Free-Thinking Argument

Evolutionary Argument Against Naturalism (EAAN)

Modal Ontological (Maximal Greatness)

Five Ways

Arguments from Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

First Way – From Motion/Change

Second Way – From Efficient Cause

Third Way – From Contingency

Fourth Way – From Degrees of Perfection

Fifth Way – From Finality / Teleology

Christian Evidences

Evidence & Arguments for Christian Theism

Resurrection of Jesus

Evidence for the Resurrection of Christ

Maximal Data Method (McGrew)

The A.L.I.V.E. Argument (McGrew)

Core Facts Argument (Craig)

Minimal Facts Argument (Habermas)

Harmonization of the Resurrection Accounts

Contra Conspiracy Hypothesis (Stolen-Body Theory)

Contra Apparent Death Hypothesis (Swoon Theory)

Contra Displaced Body Hypothesis

Contra Hallucination Hypothesis

Contra Legend Hypothesis

Contra Ehrman's Hypothesis

Contra Lüdemann’s Hypothesis

Divinity of Christ

Biblical Evidence for High-Christology: Jesus is God

TBD

Prophecy Fulfillment

Messianic Prophecy in the Old Testament Fulfilled in Jesus

Were the Messianic Prophecies Written Before Jesus?

Does the New Testament Quote the Old Testament Out of Context?

Was Israel Already Waiting for a Messiah?

Was the Messiah Expected to Be More Than a Man?

Was the Virgin of Isaiah 7:14 a Mistranslation?

Who Is the Servant of Isaiah 53?

Did the Old Testament Describe the Crucifixion?

The Messiah Had to Come Before AD 70

Why Do the Nations Worship the God of Israel?

Do the Prophecies Converge on One Man?

Was the Prophecy Fulfillment Manufactured?

Does the Bible Contain Failed Prophecies?

If the Prophecies Were Clear, Why Didn't More of Israel Accept Them?

New Testament Criticism

Evidence for the Reliability of the NT Bible

The Gospels: Real History

Textual Transmission and Manuscript Evidence

Early Dating and Eyewitness Proximity of the New Testament

Convergence of Independent New Testament Traditions

Undesigned Coincidences as Evidence of Gospel Reliability

Internal Marks of Eyewitness Testimony and Verisimilitude

External Corroboration – Archaeology and Non-Christian Sources

Literary/Historical Character of the Gospels

Alleged Gospel Contradictions and Historical Harmonization

Transformation and Conduct of the Key Witnesses

Early Christian Persecution

Old Testament Criticism

Evidence for the Reliability of the OT Bible

TBD1

Common Objections

Objection Analyses to Christian Theism

Problem of Evil

If God is Good...Why Evil?

Intellectual PoE: Logical

Intellectual PoE: Probabilistic

Intellectual PoE: External

Emotional PoE

Proof of God from Evil

Animal Suffering

Did God Command Genocide?

Does the Bible Condone Slavery?

Binding of Isaac Dilemma

Science

Is Science Compatible with Christian Theism?

TBD

Bad Claims

Common "Bad Information" Challenges to Christianity

Bad Claims: God's Existence

Bad Claims: Bible Reliability

Bad Claims: Bible Interpretation

Miscellaneous

Objections That Fit No Other Category

How Can Jesus Be the Only Way?

What About Those Who've Never Heard of Jesus?

World Religions

Critical Analyses of Non-Christian Religions

Mormonism

Critical Analysis of Latter-day Saint Claims

Fraudulent Prophetic Claims

Failed Prophecies

Book of Mormon Historical Fiction

Fraudulent Book of Abraham

Lack of Credible Witnesses

Plural Marriage Motivation

Infinite Regression of Gods

Fraudulent Isaiah 29 Claim

Christian and Mormon Differences

Islam

Critical Analysis of Islamic Claims

The Islamic Dilemma

Jehovah's Witness

Critical Analysis of Jehovah's Witness Claims

TBD

Philosophy

Phileō Sophia - to Love Wisdom.

Logic

Study of Reasoning and Argumentation

First Principles

Deductive Arguments

Inductive Arguments

Cumulative Case Arguments

Symbolic Logic

Logic: Common Fallacies

Invalid Reasoning in Logical Arguments

Ad Hominem

Straw Man

Red Herring

Genetic Fallacy

Appeal to Consequences

Shifting the Burden of Proof

Appeal to Authority

Appeal to Ignorance

Hasty Generalization

Slippery Slope

Weak Analogy

Argument from Silence

Begging the Question

False Dilemma

Special Pleading

No True Scotsman

Equivocation

Composition and Division

Category Mistake

Affirming the Consequent

Epistemology

Study of Knowledge

Dunning-Kruger Effect

Three Types of Knowledge

Justified True Belief (JTB)

Warrant

Metaphysics: Free Will

Whether Our Choices Are Up to Us

Read This First: Thesis

What Free Will Is, and Why It Matters

If Determinism Is True, Nothing Is Up to Us

The Bondage of the Will Is Not the Denial of Free Will

God's Knowing What You Will Do Does Not Make You Do It

God Knows What You Would Freely Do, and Plans Around It

Philosophical Theology

Analytical Analyses of Christian Systematic Theology

Prolegomena

Methodologies and the Rationality of Faith

Meta-Apologetics: Soft-Classical

Meta-Apologetics: Evidentialist

Meta-Apologetics: Reformed

Meta-Apologetics: Presuppositional

Bibliology

The Doctrine of Scripture

New Testament Canon

Sola Scriptura

Theology Proper

The Divine Nature and Properties of God

Divine Simplicity (Classical / Strong)

Divine Simplicity (Weak)

The Trinity

Analysis of God in Three Persons

One God in Three Persons

There Is Exactly One God

There Are Exactly Three Persons

The Holy Spirit Is a Person, and God

The Two Errors Nicaea Refused

The Logical Problem of the Trinity

Relative Identity and Constitution

Anti-Social Trinitarianism

Functional and Group Mind Monotheism

Trinity Monotheism

Tripersonal Monotheism

The Divine Processions

Divine Simplicity and the Trinity

The Argument from Love

Creation

The Doctrine of Creation

TBD

Anthropology

The Doctrine of Humanity

TBD

Christology

The Doctrine of Christ

TBD

Soteriology

The Doctrine of Salvation

TBD

Ecclesiology

The Doctrine of the Church

TBD

Eschatology

The Doctrine of Last Things

Is There a Pre-Tribulation Rapture?

Public Theology

Theological Analyses of Societal Issues

Theology of the Family

Where Faith and Family Intersect

Unequally Yoked Christian Dating

Child Discipline & Spanking

Biographies

Notable Works & Great Quotes from Key Figures

Ancient History

3000 BC – 400 BC

Abraham of Ur c. 2000 – c. 1825 BC

Moses of Egypt c. 1526 – c. 1406 BC

David of Bethlehem c. 1040 – 970 BC

Zoroaster of Eastern Iran fl. c. 1000 BC

Solomon of Jerusalem r. c. 970 – 931 BC

Elijah of Tishbe fl. c. 870 – 850 BC

Isaiah of Jerusalem c. 765 – c. 680 BC

Homer of Ionia fl. c. 750 – 700 BC

Jeremiah of Anathoth c. 650 – c. 570 BC

Daniel of Judah fl. 605 – 536 BC

Confucius of Lu 551 – 479 BC

Siddhartha Gautama "Buddha" c. 480 – c. 400 BC

Classical Greece

600 BC – 300 BC

Thales of Miletus c. 624 – c. 546 BC

Pythagoras of Samos c. 570 – c. 495 BC

Xenophanes of Colophon c. 570 – c. 478 BC

Heraclitus of Ephesus c. 540 – c. 480 BC

Parmenides of Elea c. 515 – c. 450 BC

Anaxagoras of Clazomenae c. 500 – 428 BC

Protagoras of Abdera c. 490 – c. 420 BC

Socrates of Athens 470 – 399 BC

Democritus of Abdera c. 460 – c. 370 BC

Plato of Athens 427 – 347 BC

Aristotle of Stagira 384 – 322 BC

Alexander the Great 356 – 323 BC

The Hellenistic & Roman World

300 BC – 300 AD

Epicurus of Samos 341 – 270 BC

Zeno of Citium c. 334 – 262 BC

Hillel the Elder of Babylon fl. c. 30 BC – c. 10 AD

Cicero of Arpinum 106 – 43 BC

Titus Lucretius Carus c. 99 – c. 55 BC

Virgil of Mantua 70 – 19 BC

Philo of Alexandria 20 BC – 50 AD

Seneca of Corduba c. 4 BC – 65 AD

Josephus of Jerusalem 37 – c. 100 AD

Plutarch of Chaeronea c. 46 – c. 120 AD

Epictetus of Hierapolis c. 50 – c. 135 AD

Tacitus the Historian c. 56 – c. 120 AD

Pliny the Younger of Comum c. 61 – c. 113 AD

Marcus Aurelius of Rome 121 – 180 AD

Celsus the Platonist fl. c. 175 AD

Plotinus of Lycopolis 204 – 270 AD

Mani of Babylonia 216 – c. 274 AD

Porphyry of Tyre c. 234 – c. 305 AD

Jesus & the Apostles

5 BC – 100 AD

Mary of Nazareth fl. c. 6 BC – c. 33 AD

John the Baptist c. 5 BC – c. 30 AD

Jesus of Nazareth 6–4 BC – 30 AD

Mary Magdalene fl. c. 29 – c. 33 AD

Stephen of Jerusalem d. c. 34 AD

James of Jerusalem d. 62 AD

Peter of Bethsaida d. c. 64 – 68 AD

Paul the Apostle 5 – 64/67 AD

Luke the Evangelist fl. c. 50 – c. 85 AD

John the Apostle d. c. 100 AD

The Early Church

100 AD – 325 AD

Clement of Rome fl. c. 96 AD

Ignatius of Antioch d. c. 107 – 110 AD

Papias of Hierapolis fl. c. 110 AD

Polycarp of Smyrna c. 69 – c. 155 AD

Marcion of Sinope c. 85 – c. 160 AD

Valentinus the Gnostic c. 100 – c. 160 AD

Justin Martyr of Flavia Neapolis c. 100 – c. 165 AD

Irenaeus of Lyons c. 130 – c. 202 AD

Athenagoras of Athens fl. c. 177 AD

Clement of Alexandria c. 150 – c. 215 AD

Tertullian of Carthage c. 155 – c. 220 AD

Perpetua of Carthage c. 181 – 203 AD

Origen of Alexandria c. 185 – c. 253 AD

Cyprian of Carthage c. 210 – 258 AD

Lactantius the Rhetorician c. 250 – c. 325 AD

The Church Fathers

325 AD – 500 AD

Antony of Egypt c. 251 – 356 AD

Arius of Alexandria c. 256 – 336 AD

Eusebius of Caesarea c. 260 – 339 AD

Constantine the Great c. 272 – 337 AD

Athanasius of Alexandria c. 296 – 373 AD

Ephrem the Syrian c. 306 – 373 AD

Hilary of Poitiers c. 310 – 367 AD

Macrina the Younger c. 327 – 379 AD

Gregory of Nazianzus c. 329 – 390 AD

Basil of Caesarea c. 330 – 379 AD

Julian the Apostate c. 331 – 363 AD

Gregory of Nyssa c. 335 – 395 AD

Ambrose of Milan c. 339 – 397 AD

Jerome of Stridon c. 347 – 420 AD

John Chrysostom of Antioch c. 347 – 407 AD

Augustine of Hippo 354 – 430 AD

Pelagius of Britain c. 354 – after 418 AD

Hypatia of Alexandria c. 355 – 415 AD

Cyril of Alexandria c. 376 – 444 AD

Patrick of Britain c. 385 – c. 461 AD

Nestorius of Germanicia c. 386 – c. 451 AD

Leo the Great c. 400 – 461 AD

Vincent of Lérins d. c. 445 AD

The Early Middle Ages

500 AD – 1000 AD

Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite fl. c. 500 AD

Boethius of Rome c. 480 – 524 AD

Benedict of Nursia c. 480 – c. 547 AD

Gregory the Great c. 540 – 604 AD

Isidore of Seville c. 560 – 636 AD

Muhammad of Mecca c. 570 – 632 AD

Maximus the Confessor c. 580 – 662 AD

Bede of Jarrow c. 672 – 735 AD

Boniface of Wessex c. 675 – 754 AD

John of Damascus c. 675 – 749 AD

Timothy I of Baghdad c. 728 – 823 AD

Alcuin of York c. 735 – 804 AD

Charlemagne of the Franks c. 747 – 814 AD

Theodore Abu Qurrah of Harran c. 750 – c. 825 AD

John Scotus Eriugena of Ireland c. 800 – c. 877 AD

Al-Kindi of Kufa c. 801 – c. 873 AD

Photius of Constantinople c. 810 – 893 AD

Cyril and Methodius of Thessalonica c. 815 – 885 AD

The High Middle Ages

1000 AD – 1300 AD

Avicenna of Bukhara 980 – 1037 AD

Anselm of Canterbury 1033 – 1109 AD

Al-Ghazali of Tus 1058 – 1111 AD

Peter Abelard of Le Pallet 1079 – 1142 AD

Bernard of Clairvaux 1090 – 1153 AD

Peter Lombard of Novara c. 1096 – 1160 AD

Hildegard of Bingen 1098 – 1179 AD

Averroes of Cordoba 1126 – 1198 AD

Maimonides of Cordoba 1138 – 1204 AD

Dominic of Caleruega c. 1170 – 1221 AD

Francis of Assisi 1181 – 1226 AD

Albert the Great of Lauingen c. 1200 – 1280 AD

Bonaventure of Bagnoregio c. 1221 – 1274 AD

Thomas Aquinas of Roccasecca c. 1225 – 1274 AD

Ramon Llull of Majorca 1232 – 1316 AD

Late Middle Ages & Renaissance

1300 AD – 1500 AD

Meister Eckhart of Thuringia c. 1260 – 1328 AD

Dante Alighieri of Florence 1265 – 1321 AD

John Duns Scotus of Duns c. 1266 – 1308 AD

William of Ockham c. 1287 – 1347 AD

Gregory Palamas of Constantinople 1296 – 1359 AD

Petrarch of Arezzo 1304 – 1374 AD

John Wycliffe of Lutterworth c. 1328 – 1384 AD

Julian of Norwich c. 1342 – after 1416 AD

Catherine of Siena 1347 – 1380 AD

Jan Hus of Husinec c. 1372 – 1415 AD

Thomas à Kempis c. 1380 – 1471 AD

Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz c. 1400 – 1468 AD

Nicholas of Cusa 1401 – 1464 AD

Lorenzo Valla of Rome 1407 – 1457 AD

Marsilio Ficino of Figline 1433 – 1499 AD

Girolamo Savonarola of Ferrara 1452 – 1498 AD

Reformation & Counter-Reformation

1500 AD – 1600 AD

Erasmus of Rotterdam 1466 – 1536 AD

Niccolò Machiavelli of Florence 1469 – 1527 AD

Nicolaus Copernicus of Toruń 1473 – 1543 AD

Thomas More of London 1478 – 1535 AD

Martin Luther of Eisleben 1483 – 1546 AD

Bartolomé de las Casas of Seville 1484 – 1566 AD

Ulrich Zwingli of Wildhaus 1484 – 1531 AD

Thomas Cranmer of Aslockton 1489 – 1556 AD

Ignatius of Loyola 1491 – 1556 AD

William Tyndale of Gloucestershire c. 1494 – 1536 AD

Menno Simons of Witmarsum 1496 – 1561 AD

Philipp Melanchthon of Bretten 1497 – 1560 AD

Francis Xavier of Navarre 1506 – 1552 AD

John Calvin of Noyon 1509 – 1564 AD

Michael Servetus of Villanueva c. 1511 – 1553 AD

John Knox of Haddington c. 1514 – 1572 AD

Teresa of Ávila 1515 – 1582 AD

Michel de Montaigne of Périgord 1533 – 1592 AD

Luis de Molina of Cuenca 1535 – 1600 AD

Faustus Socinus of Siena 1539 – 1604 AD

John of the Cross 1542 – 1591 AD

Robert Bellarmine of Montepulciano 1542 – 1621 AD

Giordano Bruno of Nola 1548 – 1600 AD

Francisco Suárez of Granada 1548 – 1617 AD

Richard Hooker of Exeter 1554 – 1600 AD

The Age of Reason

1600 AD – 1730 AD

Jacobus Arminius of Oudewater c. 1560 – 1609 AD

Francis Bacon of London 1561 – 1626 AD

Galileo Galilei of Pisa 1564 – 1642 AD

Johannes Kepler of Weil der Stadt 1571 – 1630 AD

Edward Herbert of Cherbury 1583 – 1648 AD

Hugo Grotius of Delft 1583 – 1645 AD

Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury 1588 – 1679 AD

René Descartes of La Haye 1596 – 1650 AD

John Milton of London 1608 – 1674 AD

Richard Baxter of Rowton 1615 – 1691 AD

John Owen of Stadhampton 1616 – 1683 AD

Blaise Pascal of Clermont 1623 – 1662 AD

Robert Boyle of Lismore 1627 – 1691 AD

John Bunyan of Elstow 1628 – 1688 AD

Baruch Spinoza of Amsterdam 1632 – 1677 AD

John Locke of Wrington 1632 – 1704 AD

Isaac Newton of Woolsthorpe 1643 – 1727 AD

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz of Leipzig 1646 – 1716 AD

Pierre Bayle of Le Carla 1647 – 1706 AD

Samuel Clarke of Norwich 1675 – 1729 AD

George Berkeley of Kilkenny 1685 – 1753 AD

Enlightenment & Awakening

1730 AD – 1830 AD

Joseph Butler of Wantage 1692 – 1752 AD

Voltaire of Paris 1694 – 1778 AD

Hermann Samuel Reimarus of Hamburg 1694 – 1768 AD

Jonathan Edwards of East Windsor 1703 – 1758 AD

John Wesley of Epworth 1703 – 1791 AD

Thomas Reid of Strachan 1710 – 1796 AD

David Hume of Edinburgh 1711 – 1776 AD

Jean-Jacques Rousseau of Geneva 1712 – 1778 AD

George Whitefield of Gloucester 1714 – 1770 AD

Immanuel Kant of Königsberg 1724 – 1804 AD

John Newton of London 1725 – 1807 AD

Gotthold Ephraim Lessing of Kamenz 1729 – 1781 AD

Thomas Paine of Thetford 1737 – 1809 AD

Edward Gibbon of Putney 1737 – 1794 AD

William Paley of Peterborough 1743 – 1805 AD

William Wilberforce of Hull 1759 – 1833 AD

William Carey of Paulerspury 1761 – 1834 AD

Friedrich Schleiermacher of Breslau 1768 – 1834 AD

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel of Stuttgart 1770 – 1831 AD

The Nineteenth Century

1830 AD – 1900 AD

Simon Greenleaf of Newburyport 1783 – 1853 AD

Charles Hodge of Philadelphia 1797 – 1878 AD

John Henry Newman of London 1801 – 1890 AD

Ludwig Feuerbach of Landshut 1804 – 1872 AD

Joseph Smith of Sharon 1805 – 1844 AD

John Stuart Mill of London 1806 – 1873 AD

David Friedrich Strauss of Ludwigsburg 1808 – 1874 AD

Charles Darwin of Shrewsbury 1809 – 1882 AD

Leo XIII of Carpineto Romano 1810 – 1903 AD

Søren Kierkegaard of Copenhagen 1813 – 1855 AD

Karl Marx of Trier 1818 – 1883 AD

Fyodor Dostoevsky of Moscow 1821 – 1881 AD

George MacDonald of Huntly 1824 – 1905 AD

Thomas Henry Huxley of Ealing 1825 – 1895 AD

James Clerk Maxwell of Edinburgh 1831 – 1879 AD

Charles Spurgeon of Kelvedon 1834 – 1892 AD

Abraham Kuyper of Maassluis 1837 – 1920 AD

James Orr of Glasgow 1844 – 1913 AD

Friedrich Nietzsche of Röcken 1844 – 1900 AD

Georg Cantor of Saint Petersburg 1845 – 1918 AD

Adolf von Harnack of Dorpat 1851 – 1930 AD

B. B. Warfield of Lexington 1851 – 1921 AD

Herman Bavinck of Hoogeveen 1854 – 1921 AD

The Early Twentieth Century

1900 AD – 1960 AD

William James of New York 1842 – 1910 AD

Sigmund Freud of Freiberg 1856 – 1939 AD

A. E. Taylor of Oundle 1869 – 1945 AD

William J. Seymour of Centerville 1870 – 1922 AD

Bertrand Russell of Trellech 1872 – 1970 AD

G. K. Chesterton of London 1874 – 1936 AD

Albert Schweitzer of Kaysersberg 1875 – 1965 AD

Albert Einstein of Ulm 1879 – 1955 AD

J. Gresham Machen of Baltimore 1881 – 1937 AD

Jacques Maritain of Paris 1882 – 1973 AD

Étienne Gilson of Paris 1884 – 1978 AD

Rudolf Bultmann of Wiefelstede 1884 – 1976 AD

Karl Barth of Basel 1886 – 1968 AD

Paul Tillich of Starzeddel 1886 – 1965 AD

Ludwig Wittgenstein of Vienna 1889 – 1951 AD

Edith Stein of Breslau 1891 – 1942 AD

J. R. R. Tolkien of Bloemfontein 1892 – 1973 AD

Reinhold Niebuhr of Wright City 1892 – 1971 AD

Dorothy L. Sayers of Oxford 1893 – 1957 AD

Georges Lemaître of Charleroi 1894 – 1966 AD

Cornelius Van Til of Grootegast 1895 – 1987 AD

Charles Hartshorne of Kittanning 1897 – 2000 AD

C. S. Lewis of Belfast 1898 – 1963 AD

Jean-Paul Sartre of Paris 1905 – 1980 AD

Dietrich Bonhoeffer of Breslau 1906 – 1945 AD

Kurt Gödel of Brünn 1906 – 1978 AD

Simone Weil of Paris 1909 – 1943 AD

Lesslie Newbigin of Newcastle upon Tyne 1909 – 1998 AD

A. J. Ayer of London 1910 – 1989 AD

Albert Camus of Mondovi 1913 – 1960 AD

Flannery O’Connor of Savannah 1925 – 1964 AD

Contemporary Voices

1960 AD – present

Karl Rahner of Freiburg 1904 – 1984 AD

Francis Schaeffer of Germantown 1912 – 1984 AD

J. L. Mackie of Sydney 1917 – 1981 AD

Antony Flew of London 1923 – 2010 AD

Joseph Ratzinger of Marktl 1927 – 2022 AD

Martin Luther King Jr. of Atlanta 1929 – 1968 AD

Alvin Plantinga of Ann Arbor b. 1932 AD

Richard Swinburne of Smethwick b. 1934 AD

Richard Dawkins of Nairobi b. 1941 AD

N. T. Wright of Morpeth b. 1948 AD

Christopher Hitchens of Portsmouth 1949 – 2011 AD

William Lane Craig of Peoria b. 1949 AD

Timothy Keller of Allentown 1950 – 2023 AD

Bart Ehrman of Lawrence b. 1955 AD

Lydia McGrew of Kalamazoo b. c. 1965 AD